Pick a company (Thorntons) of your choice answer two question Essay

Pick a company (Thorntons) of your choice answer two question - Essay Example While it was previously characterized as a luxury brand, it is quickly loosing the perception given the recent economic conditions and the increasingly saturated market. Thorntons has thus failed to develop an edge over the competition despite being a well known brand. Thornton’s has been badly affected by the recent financial downturn. This is because of the increasing price of the raw materials that impacts the price of the already expensive product. Also the consumers are left with low purchasing power given the recent recession. This is probably one reason behind the decrease in sales. The company is also impacted by change in consumer perception regarding sugar products including chocolate. With the increase in health and diet conscious public, Thorntons is negatively impacted, especially because Thorntons most important customers, which as women, are changing their attitude towards buying chocolate. Even under all this negative turn of events, Thorntons may still be able to succeed given its perception in the minds of the customers as a premium chocolate brand (Clark). Also the UK confectionary market provides a pleasant picture for chocolate makers since it is a growing market with the highest market share taken by chocolate products (Datamonitor, 15) The competition for Thorntons has also increased as chocolates such as Hotel Chocolat and Lindt take on a more aggressive stance. Thorntons, with the increase in competition, did not manage to improve upon its products. Thorntons failed to innovate with more brands and different taste (Richardson). In the recent years, Thorntons has decided to move to selling its more commercial products in super-markets (Thorntons PLC, 2). Even though Thorntons has its own retail shop, it has moved on to sell in supermarkets where customers are given a choice of different chocolates. Given that Thorntons is a

Continental Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Continental Philosophy Essay When beginning the study of philosophy it is hard to believe that there are so many components involved with one subject. But in reality philosophy is really a broad term for many subtopics; as is the case when discussing continental philosophy, which is the philosophical tradition of continental Europe including phenomenology and existentialism. It all began with Absolute Idealism supported by such philosophers as Fichte and Hegel. It was during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that immense amounts of historical changes taking place in the world were showing in the philosophical movements of that time period. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel begins the historical analysis of continental philosophy since it all begins with his theories. Though Hegel’s philosophies have been described as difficult his theories form the foundation for what is now known as Hegelian idealism. His theory has four main themes. The first is dependant on the â€Å"Absolute† and states that the â€Å"Absolute† is that which is most real and true and which can also think for itself. The second is based on idealism and he speaks of the objective world being an â€Å"expression of infinite thought† (Moore Bruder 2005) and that each individuals mind thought processes actually are reflections on themselves. The third theory is based on reality. For Hegel this was not an easy concept. To try to make it easier to understand our book tries to describe it as being similar to mathematics in that everything is coherently connected to another. So in order for something to be completely true it is dependant on all its parts to make it so. Then the forth theory is known as â€Å"The Absolute† and is the â€Å"sum total of reality; is a system of conceptual triads . . . the entire system of thought and reality . . . is an integrated whole in which each proposition is logically interconnected with the rest† (2005). As the nineteenth century turned into the twentieth century what seemed to transpire in philosophy was a direct result of Hegel himself. The response to Hegelian idealism in Europe became known as Continental philosophy which includes the two branches of thought that will be explored, existentialism and phenomenology. Existentialism is a philosophical movement with its main emphasis on individual existence, freedom, and choice. Existentialism became popularized in the 1900’s. Mainly due to what was happening during World War II, many of the popular existentialists were affected by the traumatic world events of that time period. Albert Camus was profoundly affected by World War II and this was depicted throughout his many writings. According to our reading he saw much suffering and despair prior to the war even starting. He eventually became active in social reform and was a member of the communist party for a brief period of time. Even though he will forever be connected to the world of existentialism, he never accepted that to be true. Regardless of his beliefs to whether or not he was an existentialist his thought process has been forever linked. Considered to be a literary genius of his time he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957. During the war, Camus published a number of works which have become associated with his principle thought processes on the â€Å"absurd†: his idea is mainly that it is impossible to make rational sense of ones experience, and human life is made meaningless by mortality. World War II brought Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre together. Sartre is arguably the most famous existentialist. Unlike Camus, Sartre was an atheist. His main beliefs revolve around the fact that there is in fact no God. For Existentialists like Sartre, the absence of God has a much larger significance than the metaphysics of creation: Without God there is no purpose, no value, and no meaning in the world. Phenomenology is the second branch of Continental philosophy that has historical connections to Hegelian idealism and thus existentialism. Phenomenology is the direct result of Edmund Husserl’s philosophies. According to Husserl, the goal of philosophy was to describe the data of consciousness without bias or prejudice, ignoring all metaphysical and scientific theories in order to accurately describe and analyze the data gathered by human senses and the mind. â€Å"Phenomenology, in theory, simply explores conscious experience without making any metaphysical assumptions† (2005). Martin Heidegger was another popular phenomenologist of the twentieth century. He was inspired by Husserl’s works. â€Å"Heidegger, too, was convinced that it was necessary to look at things with fresh eyes, unshrouded by the presuppositions of the present and past† (2005). According to him humans are actually â€Å"ignorant† to everything, what he called the â€Å"true nature of Being† (2005). It all goes back to Socrates and our inner search for something. In reality however Heidegger and Socrates philosophies are not similar in anyway. To define humans as animals capable of rational thinking is for Heidegger a distorted anthropology. He is not concerned with destroying logic, the ability to formulate analogies, or to display ratios. His mission is to preserve the fragile tendencies of spontaneous thought processes. By so doing Heidegger sees himself as presenting the phenomenal world. Continental philosophy is a form of philosophy that broadens the gap across the continents. It was the form of philosophy that took place in continental Europe during the twentieth century. It was during that time that the main philosophers of that time were being influenced by the terror and violence that was surrounding them thanks in part due to World War II. This influential time saw the rise in existentialism and phenomenology. References Moore, B. N. Bruder, K. (2005). Philosophy: The power of ideas (6th ed. ). Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Magic Bullet Theory Analysis

Magic Bullet Theory Analysis ABSTRACT The theory of Magic bullet concept will be critically examine in this paper and its relevance to recent civilization. Historically this theory is an old media communication emanated since 1930’s assessment, which is recently challenged based on its relevance and scholar’s opinion along with the critics, assumptions and application which lead to general conclusion that Magic Bullet theory which as well as known as â€Å"hypodermic Needle† with regards to theory of media is still so significant still in this 21st century Keynotes: Magic bullet Theory, Propaganda, Audience, critics, advertising, Media communication INTRODUCTION Scholars projected that Magic Bullet theory on media effect and media behaviors was narrowed down to be passive and made influence in the people’s mind. In relevance to this theory, audience were seen to be homogenized when receiving information from the media. Thus make a great impact whereby contemporary audience is seem to be more differentiated. This foster a debatable augmentations amongst scholars that, this theory was proposed when communication media were still new, so its applications in western society is still very needful. This will also focus on the after effect of advertising on audiences to substantiate its relevance. This paper ague that advertising is seen as a form of propaganda tool, which is used by series of organisation or institutes to influence people mostly customers’ buying behaviors or stakeholders. A proposed research questions, methodology review and comparison with relevant literature will be critically examined. This will at the end nurture the relevance of the theory ‘Magic bullet’ and applicability amongst other critics of the theory. History of the Magic bullet theory also known as â€Å"Hypodermic Needle† will briefly be mentioned and propaganda will also be discussed in this paper, with structural argumentative relevance of the theory, using contemporary advertising strategy as an example of how the media inject propagandistic messages to perpetrate behavioral change. Having said these, there will also be a section which explains criticisms towards the theory, focusing on the notion of media effect to the audience. In the conclusive note, the implications of the occurrences will be illustrated. METHODOLOGY Research analysis of this paper is aimed at the relevance of Magic Bullet theory in today’s western society, with argument for applicability of the theory and evidence to back up this framework. Series of instances of propagandistic advertising will also be elaborated, based on theoretical framework. Use of scholar’s online journals, taught in class (The Hague University of applied science by Dr. Bruce Mutsvairo) and Mass media relations books is used to put up this paper together. Literature review Propaganda Defined According to Doob (1948) carefully illustrated that it is neither possible nor desirable to have a clear definition of propaganda because it links to complexity of behavior in different times and cultures. However, Jowett and O’Donnell (1992:4) criticized this and define propaganda as the deliberate and systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions and direct behaviour to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist. He specified that without proper identification of the terms it will be highly difficult to analyze it. In the same perspectives, Pratkanis and Aronson (2001) recognized propaganda as the abuse of persuasion and it is regarded as a crafty deception. The basic information delivered by propaganda tends to control public opinion and shape their behavioral patterns. In view of some scholars propagandistic messages were created to influence the public’s view. In this contexts, this paper analysis contends that advertising is a form of propaganda and it is used by structural establishments to influence their audience. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Magic Bullet theory of communication also known as â€Å"Hypodermic Needle† widely believed by media scholars as the oldest mass media communication theories since 1930 during the Second World War (SWW) in both Germany and United states, this made influence in the mind of people. Scholars’ suggestion behind this story and Fourie, 2008 stated that is that media (needle) messages which contains idea, attitudes and value are directly injects in to the minds of audience and psyche, causes change. The Magic bullet theory cause changes in audience behavior towards the message. Audience are passive and they can’t resist the media message, it can penetrate most people defenses and condition them to act in ways useful to propagandist (Stanley B. 2009). During the world war, Harold Lasswell stated that people was a victims of this propagandist messages in which its influences audiences’ behaviour prominently. According to Grossberg et al, (2006) in their findings me dia messages irresistible influence on the mass of audience. Another renowned incident of Magic bullet scenario was the radio broadcast of H.G. Wells’ novel â€Å"War of the Worlds†. The radio broadcast news roused around that Martins had started invading northern New Jersey, as a result there lots of panic and fear in the minds of people to the extent people fled the city and starts relocating. Another example in the same contexts of identical scenario †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. This two scenario is defines a good example of Magic Bullet theory operate. The audience is given virtually no tribute for being able to discern the actuality from fiction. On the contrary to this theory in 1940 a study conducted by Lazarsfeld called â€Å"People’s Choice† about Franklin D. election campaign and the effects of media messages. Through this study it is disapproved by Lazarsfeld that Magic Bullet theory and added audience are more influential in interpersonal than a media messages. This are not really conceived by people because of the stimulus effect it brings. Figure 1.1 conceptual Model Source: Katz Lazarsfeld (1955) Discussion Relevance of Magic Bullet Theory in the 21st Century. According to great scholars like Jowett and O’Donnell (2012) stated that the modern form of Magic Bullet theory could be view in an unintentional advertising by corporations create media messages in audience mind and how audience react towards the message without any hesitation which stimulate behavioral changes. This scholars – Jewett and O’Donnell (2012) define this kind of advertising as â€Å"a series of symbol, appeal and information deliberately designed to influence receiver of the message to act in some specific impulse either negative or positive way or only retain a memory. In light of the definitions of Jowett and O’Donnell (2012, p.55) advertising is â€Å"a series of appeals, statements and symbols intentionally schemed to either influence the receiver of the message towards the point of view and act in some precise way or maintain a memory in the mind of the audience†. Meanwhile, Propaganda is inferred to be â€Å"the deliberate and systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist† (Jowett and O’Donnell, 2012, p.7). So it will be argue against that advertising is a form of propaganda, and it is used by organizations to influence audiences. According to argumentative statement made by Exoo (1994, p.258), which was confer by Jowett and O’Donnell (2012) regarding advertising as a form of propaganda in which it was critically deliberated that, advertisers sell sort of ideas and appeals to customers as follows: Selling the â€Å"Good Life†: Advertisers aimed at passing a distinctive message across to the audience, by which products confer to us prestige, sex, power, love and indeed, complete satisfaction of life, which philosophers described as ‘Good Life’ Selling America. Nation loyalty is deduced from advertiser’s perception. The America learned early from this, that patriotism sells. It is capitalism’s idealized America, freedom of choice of product, freedom to life, freedom of speech. Selling therapy. The revolution of the century brought mindboggling change Americans ways of life. Advertisers make use of this revolution and prescribed capitalism’s own products as the therapy for injuries shaped by capitalism. Advertisement is like a cure for so many buying and selling conceptions. Sexism: Selling sexism is also deduced by advertisers, portraying women as beautiful creature and as domestic being. The ad industry also goes establishing a voice of liberation; gender equality for women, it’s widely perceived that women does not fit in a leader positions, they are seen as only domestic leaders , according to Bible (1 Cor. 11:3, 8, 9)as unto the weaker vessel women was described as weaker being. However, liberation widely spread to give capitalism for women in this regards. Philosophers articulated a great sense of advice to advertisers to focus more on human insecurities and fantasies, thereby the message will be more irresistible, which created an effect of propagandistic message called ‘Impoverishment of the self’ to consumers, which means â€Å"there is self-inadequacy rendered by advertiser; humankind, once thought of as spiritual being – God made, was abridged ‘hardly viable’ without products to cure its woeful inadequacies: corned feet, teeth, bad breath, crumple skin and so on in an endless indictments of uncommodified self† (Ewen, 1974, cited in Exoo, 1994, p.281). Magic Bullet theory, however suggests messages are injected with propaganda that are not able to resist by the audience. Then the â€Å"If†¦.then† strategy has been a wide attempts of deliberations by advertisers. Jasmieson and Campbell (1997) elucidated â€Å"A pretty woman uses a certain brand of lipstick in an advertisement, men flocks around her. Without making the argument explicitly define, it illustrated that if you use the product you will be beautiful, and if you are beautiful you will be more attractive to opposite sex in the context, If not†¦.then not† (cited in Baran, 2012, (p.33)) In this strategy, the ad has injected the message of beauty into consumer mind and will be more eager to purchase the products that will make them more gorgeous and attractive. In other words, Deceptiveness looms in advertisements sphere, which will always create wants in the mind of people. Behavioral effect of advertising, where things such as high expectation, consumerism and materialism McQuail (1987). It is also buttressed by Baran (2012), that America culture in tis 21st century has now become a culture of ‘ad freak’, where consumers depends. More so, Martin Agency in the US Jelly Helm, the ad pundit, see the ad created culture has produced America that is â€Å"sick†¦We work so hard so that we buy things we don’t need, things made by workers who are paid so little and threaded the survival of the earth. Helm, (2002) in addition cited that America will be remember as a culture of disposability and superficiality, a culture of poverty, vain, and violenc e, Culture of hedonism. Propaganda practices were seen to be more straightforward compared to its contemporary, which in my view takes the form of subliminal advertising because, Jowett O’Donnell, (2012) illustrated that it is becoming apparent that advertisers is a form of deception and use a discrete ways to carry out their research, in form of demographic and psychographic analyses of exact target market. Further explained that ‘many thousands of unsurpassed proficient minds have made it a profession to get into collective people mind†¦ to get inside to exploit, control and to manipulate’ (McLuhan, 1951, cited in Exoo, 1994, p.279) Magic Bullet Theory Critics It is debatable that media effect in communicating to the audience is reflected specifically based on assumption of human nature and it was not based on any empirical findings from research. The notion prove that audience are powerless to resist the media injected messages. Thus assumed to be homogenous and reaction effect towards this messages. It has been propounded that media effect were â€Å"limited by individual differences (for example in intelligence and education), social categories (such as religious and political affiliation), and personal relationships (friends and family)† (Lazarsfeld (1941) as cited by Baran 2012, p.363) Research indicated that Magic Bullet theory was perceived as an oversimplification effect of media, as such that Grossberg et al (2006) stated that â€Å"different people responded differently to the same messages and that some people may be more vulnerable to the influence of media messages†. Also the same injection (hypodermic Needle) do es not have a static effect whatsoever on every individual, some are healed and some are not whilst some are even passive when receiving the message. Metaphorically speaking Magic Bullet shot, still leaves room for different reactions to a different message to different audience. Just like how someone shot in the head may die but another may live to tell the tale. CONCLUSION I summary, Magic Bullet theory also known as â€Å"Hypodermic Needle† still has a huge significant in today’s western society. Though it is deduced References Berger, Arthur (1995). Essentials of Mass Communication Theory. London: SAGE Publications Garth S. Jowett and Victoria ODonnell. (2012) Propaganda and Persuasion. 5th ed. USA, SAGE Publications, Inc. http://insidepublicrelations.blogspot.nl/2010/01/defining-propaganda-and-pr.html (Assed: 19th Feb 2015) Stanley J. Baran, Dennis K. Davis (2009) Mass Communication Theory Foundations, Ferment, and Future by 5th ed. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. USA http://communicationtheory.org/magic-bullet-or-hypodermic-needle-theory-of-communication/ http://www.12manage.com/description_hypodermic_needle_theory.html(Assessed: 22 February, 2015) http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/ (Assessed: 24 February, 2015) http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20Clusters/Mass%20Media/Hypodermic_Needle_Theory/

Great Gatsby Essay :: essays research papers

The Great Gatsby Essay   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In The Great Gatsby, there are three illicit relationships: Gatsby and Daisy, Nick and Jordan, and Tom and Myrtle. In some ways they are similar, and in some ways each is unique. In this essay, I will compare and examine each of the couples, and try to give some insight as to why none of the relationships worked out.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The relationship between Jay Gatsby and Daisy Buchanan was probably the most one sided. The entire time they were apart, all Gatsby did was try to reach his goal, which was Daisy. When you think about somebody but don’t talk to them for a long time, you can build them up to be this perfect person. So when Gatsby and Daisy talked for the first time in years, it was almost like he was talking to a famous movie star. Daisy didn’t feel that way. She used to love him, but not anymore.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Also, if Gatsby and Daisy met under other circumstances, such as each of them having no money and Daisy not being married, their relationship may have worked out. But because of the circumstances, their relationship was doomed to fail.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Of all of the relationships, I think that the most honest was between Nick Carraway and Jordan Baker. This is ironic because it was Jordan’s compulsive dishonesty that ruined the relationship. They weren’t secretly seeing each other behind other people’s backs, they weren’t unfaithful to each other, and they both cared for each other. Nick saw Jordan’s dishonesty as a major flaw in her personality, and he didn’t think she was worth it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Out of all of the relationships, Tom Buchanan and Myrtle Wilson’s was the most the most superficial. Neither had true feelings for the other, they were just there to amuse themselves.

Police Essay

Police generally perceive the risk of injury, assault, and even death to be greatest for domestic violence calls. Why do police have these beliefs, and what is the reality of the situation? When responding to calls few inspire more dread among police officers than answering to a domestic call. Police have generally the perception of risk of injury, assault and even death. There is always this perception among police officers when answering domestic calls. Such perception cannot be avoided because domestic calls most often than not have the element of unpredictability. Emotions are high and this can run even higher if coupled with drugs and alcohol. Indeed, responding to a domestic call can be very risky on the part of the police officers. When they respond to such call, they are perceived as the threat instead of being the protector. Traditionally, a police officer would respond to a call and restore peace as soon as possible and then clear from the call. The community policing philosophy dictates that the officer review of the problem, analyze it and try to come up with a solution to the problem. (Denise Papagno). However, this theory is not realistic at all. Upon responding to a domestic call, the police officer enters into a domestic abode as a protector, but in the eyes of the owners of the abode despite his good intentions, he will always be the intruder. Hence, the police officer cannot effectively do his job especially if the victim refuses to leave and instead would insist in not doing anything or even file a complaint for that matter. It is essentially difficult for police officers to face and respond to domestic calls as society now views domestic calls as a serious crime and not merely a private family quarrel. The fact that not all of the police are educated in handling domestic issues or why the victim does not leave her abuser or why the batterer abuses the victim. Because of this, the police fail to understand victims of domestic calls and are less inclined to help them in the next call. In your opinion, what is the most problematic myth associated with policing? Explain your answer. As early as the 18th century, police work or policing is associated in being a night watchman. The job basically entails maintaining order against threats to order itself – wild animals, fire or unruly behaviour. However, at the turn of the century, policing has evolved into something more than being a night watchman. Police not only has to maintain order in their respective communities but they are also tasked to solve and fight crimes. Hence, the notion that police can solve any crime reported to them grew. As crime fighters, this notion has proven to be an additional burden to policing. Even simple and private nuisances such as littering, drunkenness and unruly behaviour are called in and reported to the police. Hence, this takes up on the workload of policing instead of focusing more on the serious crime-solving work. But together with the notion of being crime-fighters came the myth of police brutality. The average citizen sees policemen as having â€Å"zero-tolerance†. For example, in domestic calls, instead of turning in their abuser, victims would opt not to do anything for fear of the police. If they fear their abusers, victims fear the police more. It does not help that there are also police mandates such as that of Rudy Giuliani who implemented a version of Broken Windows policing across New York City. Thus, policemen were tasked to become aggressive in stamping out public disorder such as drunkenness, jaywalking and noisiness. In reality however, policing is not just being brutal and aggressive towards those lawbreakers. The concept of â€Å"community policing† has made advancement in policing. Thus, police officers who are on foot patrol have elevated the common myth about policing because admittedly, an officer who is inside the squad car and safely sealed inside cannot relate with the other people from the neighbourhood.

Mesoamerica Cultural Timeline

Mesoamerica Cultural Timeline This Mesoamerica timeline is built on the standard periodization used in Mesoamerican archaeology and upon which specialists generally agree. The term Mesoamerica literally means Middle America and it typically refers to the geographic region between the southern border of the United States to the Isthmus of Panama, including Mexico and Central America. However, Mesoamerica was and is dynamic, and never a single unified block of cultures and styles. Different regions had different chronologies, and regional terminologies exist and are touched upon in their specific areas below. Archaeological sites listed below are examples for each period, a handful of the many more that could be listed, and they often were inhabited across time periods. Hunter-Gatherer Periods Preclovis Period (?25,000–10,000 BCE). There are a handful of sites in Mesoamerica that are tentatively associated with the broad-scale hunter-gatherers known as Pre-Clovis, but they are all problematic and none appear to meet enough criteria to consider them unequivocally valid. Pre-Clovis lifeways are thought to have been based on broad-based hunter-forager-fisher strategies. Possible preclovis sites include Valsequillo, Tlapacoya, El Cedral, El Bosque, Loltun Cave. Paleoindian Period (ca 10,000–7000 BCE): The first fully-attested human inhabitants of Mesoamerica were hunter-gatherer groups belonging to the Clovis period. Clovis points and related points found throughout Mesoamerica are generally associated with big game hunting. A handful of sites also include fish-tail points such as Fells Cave points, a type found more commonly in South American Paleoindian sites. Paleoindian sites in Mesoamerica include El Fin del Mundo, Santa Isabel Iztapan, Guil Naquitz, Los Grifos, Cueva del Diablo. Archaic Period (7000–2500 BCE):. After the extinction of large-bodied mammals, many new technologies were invented, including maize domestication, developed by Archaic hunter-gatherers by 6000 BCE. Other innovative strategies included the construction of durable buildings such as pit houses, intensive techniques of cultivation and resource exploitation, new industries including ceramics, weaving, storage, and prismatic blades. The first sedentism appears about the same time as maize, and over time more and more people gave up mobile hunter-gatherer life for a village life and agriculture. People made smaller and more refined stone tools, and on the coasts, began to rely more on marine resources. Sites include Coxcatln, Guil Naquitz, Gheo Shih, Chantuto, Santa Marta cave, Pulltrouser Swamp. Pre-Classic / Formative Periods The Pre-Classic or Formative period is so named because it was originally thought to be when the basic characteristics of the classic civilizations such as the Maya began to form. The major innovation was the shift to permanent sedentism and village life based on horticulture and full-time agriculture. This period also saw the first theocratic village societies, fertility cults, economic specialization, long-distance exchange, ancestor worship, and social stratification. The period also saw the development of three distinct areas: central Mesoamerica where village farming arose in the coastal and highland areas; Aridamerica to the north, where traditional hunter-forager ways persisted; and the Intermediate area to the southeast, where Chibchan speakers kept loose ties to South American cultures. Early Preclassic/Early Formative Period (2500–900 BCE): The major innovations of the Early Formative period include the increase in pottery use, transition from village life to a more complex social and political organization, and elaborate architecture. Early Preclassic sites include those in Oaxaca (San Josà © Mogote; Chiapas: Paso de la Amada, Chiapa de Corzo), Central Mexico (Tlatilco, Chalcatzingo), Olmec area ( San Lorenzo), Western Mexico (El Opeà ±o), Maya area (Nakbà ©, Cerros), and Southeastern Mesoamerica (Usulutn). Middle Preclassic/Middle Formative Period (900–300 BCE): Increasing social inequalities is a hallmark of the Middle Formative, with elite groups having a closer connection to the wider distribution of luxury items, as well as the ability to finance public architecture and stone monuments such as ball courts, palaces, sweat baths, permanent irrigation systems, and tombs. Essential and recognizable pan-Mesoamerican elements began during this period, such as bird-serpents and controlled marketplaces; and murals, monuments, and portable art speak to political and social changes. Middle Preclassic sites include those in the Olmec area (La Venta, Tres Zapotes), Central Mexico (Tlatilco, Cuicuilco), Oaxaca (Monte Alban), Chiapas (Chiapa de Corzo, Izapa), Maya area (Nakbà ©, Mirador, Uaxactun, Kaminaljuyu, Copan), West Mexico (El Opeà ±o, Capacha), Southeastern Mesoamerica (Usulutn). Late Preclassic/Late Formative Period (300 BCE–200/250 CE): This period saw an enormous population increase along with the emergence of regional centers and the rise of regional state societies. In the Maya area, this period is marked by the construction of massive architecture decorated with giant stucco masks; the Olmec may have had three or more city-states at its maximum. The Late Preclassic also saw the first evidence of a particular pan-Mesoamerican view of the universe as a quadripartite, multi-layered cosmos, with shared creation myths and a pantheon of deities. Examples of Late Preclassic sites include those in Oaxaca (Monte Alban), Central Mexico (Cuicuilco, Teotihuacan), in the Maya area (Mirador, Abaj Takalik, Kaminaljuyà º, Calakmul, Tikal, Uaxactun, Lamanai, Cerros), in Chiapas (Chiapa de Corzo, Izapa), in Western Mexico (El Opeà ±o), and in Southeastern Mesoamerica (Usulutn). Classic Period During the Classic period in Mesoamerica, complex societies increased dramatically and split into a large number of polities that varied greatly in scale, population, and complexity; all of them were agrarian, and tied into the regional exchange networks. The simplest were located in the Maya lowlands, where city-states were organized on a feudal basis, with political control involving a complex system of interrelationships between royal families. Monte Alban was at the center of a conquest state that dominated most of the southern highlands of Mexico, organized around an emerging and vital craft production and distribution system. The Gulf Coast region was organized in about the same fashion, based on the long-distance exchange of obsidian. Teotihuacan was the largest and most complex of the regional powers, with a population of between 125,000 to 150,000, dominating the central region, and maintaining a palace-centric social structure. Early Classic Period (200/250–600 CE): The early Classic saw the apogee of Teotihuacan in the valley of Mexico, one of the largest metropolis of the ancient world. Regional centers began to diffuse outward, along with widespread Teotihuacan-Maya political and economic connections, and a centralized authority. In the Maya area, this period saw the erection of stone monuments (called stelae) with inscriptions about kings lives and events. Early Classic sites are in Central Mexico (Teotihuacan, Cholula), the Maya area (Tikal, Uaxactun, Calakmul, Copan, Kaminaljuyu, Naranjo, Palenque, Caracol), Zapotec region (Monte Alban), and western Mexico (Teuchitln). Late Classic (600–800/900 CE): The beginning of this period is characterized by the ca. 700 CE collapse of Teotihuacan in Central Mexico and the political fragmentation and high competition among many Maya sites. The end of this period saw the disintegration of political networks and a sharp decline in population levels in the southern Maya lowlands by about 900 CE. Far from a total collapse, however, many centers in the northern Maya lowlands and other areas of Mesoamerica continued to flourish afterward. Late Classic sites include the Gulf Coast (El Tajin), the Maya area (Tikal, Palenque, Tonin, Dos Pilas, Uxmal, Yaxchiln, Piedras Negras, Quirigu, Copan), Oaxaca (Monte Alban), Central Mexico (Cholula). Terminal Classic (as it is called in the Maya area) or Epiclassic (in central Mexico) (650/700–1000 CE): This period attested a political reorganization in the Maya lowlands with a new prominence of the Northern Lowland of northern Yucatan. New architectural styles show evidence of strong economic and ideological connection between central Mexico and northern Maya Lowlands. Important Terminal Classic sites are in Central Mexico (Cacaxtla, Xochicalco, Tula), the Maya area (Seibal, Lamanai, Uxmal, Chichen Itz, Sayil), the Gulf Coast (El Tajin). Postclassic The Postclassic Period is that period roughly between the fall of the Classic period cultures and the Spanish conquest. The Classic period saw larger states and empires replaced by small polities of a central town or city and its hinterland, ruled by kings and a small hereditary elite based at palaces, a marketplace and one or more temples. Early Postclassic (900/1000–1250): The Early Postclassic saw an intensification of trade and strong cultural connections between the northern Maya area and Central Mexico. There was also a flourishing of a constellation of small competing kingdoms, that competition expressed by warfare-related themes in arts. Some scholars refer to the Early Postclassic as the Toltec period, because one likely dominant kingdom was based at Tula. Sites are located in Central Mexico (Tula, Cholula), Maya area (Tulum, Chichen Itz, Mayapan, Ek Balam), Oaxaca (Tilantongo, Tututepec, Zaachila), and the Gulf Coast (El Tajin). Late Postclassic (1250–1521): The Late Postclassic period is traditionally bracketed by the emergence of the Aztec/Mexica empire and its destruction by the Spanish conquest. The period saw increased militarization of competing empires across Mesoamerica, most of which fell to and became tributary states of the Aztecs, with the exception of the Tarascans/Purà ©pecha of Western Mexico. Sites in Central Mexico are (Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Cholula, Tepoztlan), in the Gulf Coast (Cempoala), in Oaxaca (Yagul, Mitla), in the Maya region (Mayapan, Tayasal, Utatlan, Mixco Viejo), and in West Mexico (Tzintzuntzan). Colonial Period 15211821 The Colonial period began with the fall of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and the surrender of Cuauhtemoc to Hernan Cortes in 1521; and the fall of central America including the Kiche Maya to Pedro de Alvardo in 1524. Mesoamerica was now administered as a Spanish colony. The pre-European Mesoamerican cultures sustained a huge blow with the invasion and conquest of Mesoamerica by Spaniards in the early 16th century. The conquistadors and their religious community of friars brought new political, economic, and religious institutions and new technologies including the introduction of European plants and animals. Diseases were also introduced, diseases which decimated some populations and transformed all of the societies. But in Hispania, some pre-Columbian cultural traits were retained and others modified, many introduced traits were adopted and adapted to fit into existing and sustained native cultures. The Colonial period ended when after more than 10 years of armed struggle, the Creoles (Spaniards born in the Americas) declared independence from Spain. Edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst Sources Carmack, Robert M., Janine L. Gasco, and Gary H. Gossen. The Legacy of Mesoamerica: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization. Routledge, 2016. Print.Carrasco, David, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Print.Evans, Susan Toby, and David L. Webster, eds. Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 2001. Print.Manzanilla, Linda R., and Leonardo Lopez Lujan, eds. Historia Antigua De Mexico. Mexico City: Miguel Angel Porrà ºa, 2001. Print.Nichols, Deborah L., and Christopher A. Pool, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.